During the first five centuries of Christianity, the faith moved from the confines of catacombs to the prestige of palaces. Beginning as a small Jewish movement, Christianity emerged as a distinctive faith, capturing the souls, hearts, and minds of millions. It spread throughout the Roman Empire, reaching Britain in the north and India in the southeast.
While missionaries took the faith to new people in new lands, theologians discussed, debated, and defined the essence of Christianity. The first five hundred years were a fascinating time of exploration, experimentation, and expansion. Here is a brief listing of some early church saints, sinners, and scholars who shaped belief and behavior.
Tertullian
This remarkable man grew up in the North African city of Carthage. Educated in literature, law, and rhetoric, Tertullian (160-225) converted to Christianity around 197 and added theological studies to his academic training. His brilliance and literary diversity made him one of the most powerful writers of his time.
Tertullian’s most famous work is titled Apology. It definitively presented the legal and moral absurdity of the state’s persecuting Christians. Tertullian also authored books encouraging Christians facing martyrdom, explained the Lord’s Prayer and the meaning of baptism, and helped develop an understanding of the Trinity. In fact, Tertullian was the first person to use the Latin word trinitas (trinity) to explain the unity of the Godhead.
Tertullian later fell victim to the heresy of Montanism, a false-prophecy movement focusing on strict personal holiness and miraculous gifts of the Spirit. He broke with the Church around 212; the remnants of his followers were reconciled with the Church by Augustine around 400.
Marcion
The Encyclopedia of the Early Church describes Marcion (?-c. 160) as “an important second-century heretical theologian.” Although Marcion was the son of a bishop, he taught that the God of the Old Testament was different from the God of Jesus in the New Testament. The Old Testament God was a God merely of law and justice, he said, while the New Testament God was one of love and mercy.
As a result, Marcion rejected the entire Old Testament as sacred Scripture. In addition, he excluded as Scripture any New Testament writings which were overly Jewish: Matthew, Mark, Acts, and Hebrews. In fact, followers of Marcion included only ten letters of Paul and an edited version of Luke’s Gospel as their Bible.
In 144 Marcion’s views were firmly repudiated, and he was excommunicated from the Church. Marcion’s lasting significance lies in the fact his views forced the early Church to identify precisely which books would make up the Christian Bible. Early Church leaders established the canon (list of biblical books), by including the Old Testament, all four Gospels, Paul’s writings, works by other apostles, with the Book of Acts as the bridge between Jesus and the apostles.
Clement of Alexandria
Known as the “first Christian scholar,” Clement (155-220) was well versed in Christian theology and Scripture, as well as Greek philosophy and classical literature. A combination of missionary and educator, Clement was zealous in bringing other lovers of wisdom to the truth of Jesus Christ. He understood the questions of students who came from such educational centers as Rome, Athens, and Antioch and sought to lead them into the true knowledge of Christianity.
Using the language of philosophers, Clement convincingly responded to questions about the creation of the world, the existence of evil, and salvation through Jesus Christ. He was the Church’s first apostle to intellectuals. Clement’s approach was not simply academic and abstract, but pastoral and practical. He sought not to win arguments, but to win people to Christ. In 190 Clement became head of the Catechetical School of Alexandria, Egypt. It was the leading institution of higher learning for Christians.
Origen
“In the history of the early Church there is no name nobler or more remarkable than that of Origen,” declares Frederic W. Farrar in Lives of the Fathers. “He was by general admission the greatest, in almost every respect, of all the great Christian teachers of the first three Christian centuries.”
Origenes Adamantius (185-254) was born in Alexandria, Egypt, to Christian parents. As a youth, Origen was encouraged to memorize one Scripture passage each day. As an older boy he attended the Catechetical School of Alexandria, where he was a pupil of Clement. When persecution erupted in Alexandria and Clement was forced to flee the city, he turned the leadership of the Catechetical School over to Origen, who was gifted but only eighteen.
Origen proved to be a magnetic teacher who was thoroughly loyal to the basic Christian message but able to present it in philosophical form. According to the historian, Eusebius, thousands came to hear Origen’s lectures including many prominent non-Christians such as the mother of the emperor Alexander Severus. Origen is considered to be one of the first systematic Bible commentators. His writings number some 6,000 volumes, most of which have been lost. He was so prolific, and so popular, that many writings were wrongly attributed to him by his followers-and many of his own works were misread.
Some of Origen’s teachings have the distinction of having been condemned several centuries after his death. There was never any question that Origen himself was a faithful Catholic-indeed, he refused to apostatize even after lengthy and cruel torture. Modern scholars, such as Henri de Lubac, have re-established his reputation as a spiritual teacher.
Diocletian
Officially known as Valerius Diocletianus, Diocletian (245-313) was Roman Emperor from 284 until 305. His reign unleashed the final and most horrific persecution of Christians. Historians are uncertain why Diocletian began the persecution. For eighteen years he did not interfere with the growth and spread of Christianity. In fact, some of his advisors were Christians. His wife, Prisca, and daughter, Valeria, were considered Christians.
Suddenly, in 303, four edicts were issued condemning the faith. Officials were ordered to destroy church buildings, prohibit Christian worship, and burn Scriptures. Clergy were arrested en masse, imprisoned, tortured, and many put to death. For two bloody years the power of the imperial throne was turned loose to destroy the entire Christian community.
Finally, two events ended the persecution. First, Diocletian abdicated his throne. Second, public opinion turned against the Emperor’s policy of torturing, maiming, and killing Christians. Reluctantly, Diocletian’s successor, Galerius, issued an edict of toleration ending the last and worst persecution of Christians by Rome.
Arius
This man has the dubious distinction of having a heresy named after him. Arianism was denounced and condemned at the Council of Nicaea in 325. The controversy emerged while Arius (250-336) was pastor of the influential Baucalis Church in Alexandria, Egypt.
Sometime around 318 Arius began teaching that Jesus was not fully divine but a lesser being of God. Unlike God who is eternal and always existed, Jesus Christ was a created person, said Arius. In explaining his view, Arius wrote: “The son has a beginning, but . . .God is without beginning.” Arius’ view was troublesome to many key leaders of the early Church.
His viewpoints were debated locally, with the issue becoming such an explosive one that the Emperor Constantine was forced to call for a council meeting in Nicaea to resolve it. There the struggle with Arianism was settled quickly. Arius was condemned, his views were denounced as heretical, and he was forced into exile.
There was a positive.aspect to the debate initiated by Arius. From the Council of Nicaea emerged the Nicene Creed, which to this day is the standard of orthodoxy in the Catholic, Orthodox, Anglican, and some other communions. It is recited by Catholics during Sunday Mass.
John Chrysostom
Many patristic scholars designate John as the greatest preacher in the history of Christianity. When he preached, people were so spellbound that pickpockets were able to ply their trade with great success. In spite of his protests, listeners often burst into wild and spontaneous applause during his sermons.
John was born in Syria. His father, Secundus, was an officer in the Roman army. He died when John was an infant, leaving his wife, Anthusa, a widow at twenty. Although Anthusa was beautiful, talented, and had many opportunities to marry, she devoted herself to her son, providing him with an excellent education.
John (347-407) was a brilliant student. His major professor, Libanius, wanted John to succeed him as a professor of rhetoric, but was disappointed when John turned to the Christian faith and ministry. John became presbyter of the church at Antioch, where huge crowds filled the sanctuary to hear him preach. After his death, John was given the descriptive name Chrysostom (“golden mouth”) because of his oratorical skills.
Basil
Often referred to as “Basil the Great,” this religious leader is especially revered by Christians in Eastern Churches. Born in Caesarea, Cappadocia, (modern Turkey), Basil (329-379) was one of ten children. He studied at Constantinople and Athens, becoming a teacher of speech before entering the ministry.
A man of great personal holiness, Basil was also an exceptional administrator. His restructuring and organizing of monasteries continues to influence the Eastern Church today. In addition, Basil had great compassion for the poor. Basil’s legacy included establishing hospitals and hospices which provided relief for those in poverty. His skill as an administrator was recognized when he was elected archbishop of Caesarea. That prestigious position made Basil leader of fifty associate bishops and several hundred clergy. Among his more important writings are a large collection of letters written to encourage Christians and defend the faith. Basil is also author of an important book titled On The Holy Spirit.
Marcella
Although not as visible as men, women did play an important role in shaping the early Church. One such woman was Marcella (325-410), who lived in Rome.
Marcella’s life was filled with grief. Her father died when she was very young. Then, after a mere six months of marriage, she was widowed. A woman of great wealth, she chose not to marry again but devoted her life to the study of Scripture and works of charity. Her estate on Aventine Hill in Rome became a center of Christian study.
The biblical scholar, Jerome, was her guest for three years. She supported him financially, while he provided her with instruction in Scripture and prayer. Jerome was so impressed with her sincerity and piety that he referred to her as “the glory of the ladies of Rome.”
When Rome fell to invading Goths, Marcella was imprisoned and tortured severely because the Goths thought she was concealing her wealth. In fact, she had disbursed most of her money to various charitable causes. Marcella died as a direct result of imprisonment and torture. However, many had benefited from her generous financial support, as well as the Scripture studies which she sponsored and led in her home.